Commonwealth of Nations

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The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth and formerly as the British Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, all of which are former possessions of the British Empire, except for Mozambique and the United Kingdom itself.

The Commonwealth is an international organization through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds cooperate within a framework of common values and goals, outlined in the Singapore Declaration.^[1] These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.^[2]

Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, recognized by each state, and as such is the symbol of the free association of the organization's members. This position, however, does not imply political power over Commonwealth member states. In practice, the Queen heads the Commonwealth in a symbolic capacity, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is the chief executive of the organization. The Commonwealth is not a political union, and does not allow the United Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organization's other members.

Elizabeth II is also the Head of State, separately, of sixteen members of the Commonwealth, called Commonwealth Realms. As each Realm is an independent kingdom, Elizabeth II, as monarch, holds a distinct title for each, though, by a Prime Ministers' Conference in 1952, all include the words "Head of the Commonwealth" at the end; for example: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Jamaica and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Beyond the Realms, the majority of the members of the Commonwealth have their own, separate Heads of State: thirty-two members are Commonwealth republics and five members have their own monarchs (Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, and Tonga).

Every four years the Commonwealth's members celebrate the Commonwealth Games, the world's second-largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games.

[edit] History

[edit] Origins

Although performing a vastly different function, the Commonwealth is the successor of the British Empire. In 1884, whilst visiting Adelaide, South Australia, Lord Rosebery described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".

Conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers had occurred periodically since 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in the late 1920s.^[3] The formal organization of the Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Conferences, where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, when Britain and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was eventually formalized by the Statute of Westminster in 1931.

[edit] Remaining members gain independence

After World War II, the Empire was gradually dismantled, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the then-subject territories (such as that started in India under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh,Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Muhammad Ali Jinnah), and partly owing to the British Government's strained circumstances resulting from the cost of the war. The word "British" was dropped in 1949 from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect the changing position.^[4] Myanmar (formerly Burma, 1948), and Aden (1967) are the only former colonies not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Among the former protectorates and mandates, Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (became in part, the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United Arab Emirates (1971) never became members of the Commonwealth. The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth upon becoming a republic in 1949. However, the Ireland Act 1949 passed by the Parliament of Westminster gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of other citizens of the Commonwealth in UK law.

[edit] Members not under the House of Windsor

The issue of countries with constitutional structures that did not operate based on the shared Crown, but who wished to remain members of the Commonwealth, was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that when it became a republic in January 1950 it would accept the King as "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth". The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognized India's continuing membership of the association. (At Pakistan’s insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.) The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth, and following India's precedent, other nations moved to become republics, or constitutional monarchies under a different Royal House.

[edit] Old, New and White Commonwealth

As the Commonwealth grew, Britain and pre-1945 Dominions (a term formally dropped in the 1940s) became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", particularly since the 1960s when some of them disagreed with poorer, African and Asian (or New Commonwealth) members about various issues at Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth had different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, and charges of racism and colonialism arose during heated debates about Rhodesia in the 1960s and 1970s, the imposition of sanctions against apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, about whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe.^{[citation needed]} The term New Commonwealth is also used in the United Kingdom (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonized countries, which are predominantly non-white and underdeveloped. It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries.^{[citation needed]}

In recent years, the term "White Commonwealth" has been used in a derogatory sense to imply that the wealthier, white nations of the Commonwealth had different interests and goals from the non-white, and particularly the African members. Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe has used the term frequently to allege that the Commonwealth's attempts to catalyse political changes in his country is motivated by racism and colonialist attitudes and that the White Commonwealth dominates the Commonwealth of Nations as a whole.^{[citation needed]}

There have been attempts made by groups such as the United Commonwealth Society to unite the commonwealth and provide closer ties both culturally and economically, starting with the "White Commonwealth" and expanding to include other nations within the commonwealth generally.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Membership

[edit] Membership criteria

Main article: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, as the fundamental founding document of the organization, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognized the British monarch as the 'Head of the Commonwealth'.^[5] In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requisite of membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The fourteen points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade.^[2]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,^[6] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonization, the end of the Cold War, and the fall of Apartheid in South Africa.^[7] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.^[8] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalize and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.^[9]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must:

• accept and comply with the Harare principles.
• be fully sovereign states.
• recognize the monarch of the Commonwealth Realms as the Head of the Commonwealth.
• accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication.
• respect the wishes of the general population vis-à-vis Commonwealth membership.^[9]

These requirements are undergoing review, and a report on potential amendment is to be presented to the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.^[10]

[edit] Current members

Countries whose membership is currently suspended are shown in Bold text.

Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the "><" icon.

[edit] Member information

The Commonwealth comprises fifty-three, or almost a quarter, of the world's countries and has a combined population of 1.9 billion people, about a quarter of the world population and over twice as many as the whole of the Americas (North and South) put together. Of the 1.9 billion people, 1.4 billion live in the Indian Subcontinent, and 93% live in Asia or Africa.

The total GDP is about US$7.8 trillion (about 16% of the total world economy).^{[citation needed]} The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about 31.5 million km² (12.1 million square miles), or about 21% of the total world land area.

The five largest Commonwealth nations by population are India (1.1 billion), Pakistan (165 million), Bangladesh (148 m), Nigeria (137 m), and the United Kingdom (60 m). Tuvalu is the smallest member, with only 11,000 people.

The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 3.8 million square miles, Australia at 3.0 million square miles, and India at 1.2 million square miles.

The largest military spenders are the United Kingdom at GBP£33.4 billion (US$66.8 billion), India at GBP£10.6 billion (US$21 billion), and Australia and Canada at GBP£5.3 billion (US$10.5 billion) respectively.^{[citation needed]} The Commonwealth of Nations is not a military alliance. See: List of countries by military expenditures.

Nauru joined as a Special Member, but was a full member from May 1999 to January 2006 when it reverted back. ^[11]

Membership is open to countries that accept the association's basic aims and have a present or past constitutional link to a Commonwealth member. Not all members have had direct constitutional ties to Britain: some South Pacific countries were formerly under Australian or New Zealand administration, while Namibia was governed by South Africa from 1920 until independence in 1990. Cameroon joined in 1995 although only a fraction of its territory had formerly been under British administration through the League of Nations mandate of 1920–46 and United Nations Trusteeship arrangement of 1946–61. There is only one member of the present Commonwealth that has never had any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member: Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, was admitted in 1995 on the back of the triumphal re-admission of South Africa and Mozambique's first democratic elections, held in 1994. The move was supported by Mozambique's neighbours, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and who wished to offer assistance in overcoming the losses incurred from the country's opposition to white minority regimes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, amid some discontent, Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that Mozambique's admission should be seen as a special case and not set a precedent.^{[citation needed]} Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) joined in 1972 in its own right after breaking away from Pakistan (formerly West Pakistan), which was a member until it left later in the same year.

[edit] Non-members

[edit] Non-applicants

Egypt, Myanmar and Iraq have never shown an interest in joining the Commonwealth, although they are eligible to do so, having histories of British rule. Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan and Oman similarly are not members. Other countries with historical links to the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth countries that could theoretically be Commonwealth members, but have shown no indication of a wish to join, include Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.

Hong Kong, which became a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China following the end of British rule in 1997, did not join the Commonwealth.

The United States of America, which declared its independence from Britain more than 100 years before Lord Rosebery coined the term Commonwealth of Nations, is not a member.

France secretly considered membership in the 1950s, under the leadership of Prime Minister Guy Mollet. In the context of nationalization of the Suez Canal, colonial unrest, and increasing tensions between British-backed Jordan and French-backed Israel, Mollet saw a union between Britain and France as a possible solution. A British Government document of the time reported "That the French would welcome a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis". The request was turned down by the British prime minister Anthony Eden, along with a request for Commonwealth membership, and a year later France signed the Treaty of Rome with Germany and the other founding nations of the Common Market, later to become the EU. ^[12]

[edit] Current and possible future applicants

Rwanda and Yemen have applied to join the Commonwealth, and there was some interest expressed by the Palestinian National Authority.^[13] It has also been suggested that Jordan,^{[citation needed]} Israel (being formerly administered by the United Kingdom), and Algeria might consider joining.^[14]

Other eligible applicants could come from any of the remaining British overseas territories, Crown dependencies, Australian external territories and Associated States of New Zealand if any later become fully independent.^[15] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family.^[16]

See also: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria: Prospective members

[edit] Suspension

In recent years the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for failure to uphold democratic government. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organization.

Fiji, which was not a member of the Commonwealth between 1987 and 1997 as a result of a republican coup d'état, was suspended in 2000–2001 after a military coup, as was Pakistan from 1999 until 2004. Fiji was suspended once again following the military coup of December 2006.^[17]

Nigeria was suspended between 1995 and 1999.

Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's Zanu-PF government, before withdrawing from the organization in 2003. It had previously been suspended from the Commonwealth under the country's former name of Rhodesia from its unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 until its internationally recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980.

[edit] Withdrawal

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left in 1972 in protest at Commonwealth recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined in 1989. Zimbabwe left in 2003 when Commonwealth Heads of Government refused to lift the country's suspension on the grounds of human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment.

[edit] Other termination

Although Heads of Government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. However, Commonwealth Realms that become republics automatically cease to be members, unless (like India in 1950) they obtain the permission of other members to remain in the organization as a republic. Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth when it became a republic, on 18 April 1949, after passing the Republic of Ireland Act 1948; because it preceded India's London Declaration, remaining in the Commonwealth was not an option.

South Africa was prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following the end of apartheid in 1994.

The Maldives left the Commonwealth in 1965 after unilaterally declaring their independence from the United Kingdom; they were re-admitted to the Commonwealth on 9 July 1982.

The declaration of a republic in the Fiji Islands in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power in Fiji, was not accompanied by application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after racist provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.

Hong Kong was not a member but participated in certain elements as a British colony; these ceased after the 1997 handover of British rule to China.

[edit] Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (the UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the late 1960s and 1970s and over apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between Britain and African members.

An important statement of the Commonwealth's principles is the 1991 Harare Declaration, which dedicated the organization to democracy and good government, and allowed for action to be taken against members who breached these principles. Before then the Commonwealth's collective actions had been limited by the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other members.

The organisation is celebrated each year on Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March.

[edit] Benefits of membership

In its early days, the Commonwealth constituted a significant economic bloc. Commonwealth countries accorded each others' goods privileged access to their markets ("Commonwealth Preference"), and there was a free or preferred right of migration from one Commonwealth country to another. These rights have been steadily eroded, but their consequences remain. Within most Commonwealth countries, there are substantial communities with family ties to other members of the Commonwealth, going beyond the effects of the original colonisation of parts of the Commonwealth by settlers from the British Isles. Furthermore, consumers in Commonwealth countries retain many preferences for goods from other members of the Commonwealth, so that even in the absence of tariff privileges, there continues to be more trade within the Commonwealth than might be predicted. On Britain's entry to the European Community, the Lomé Convention preserved some of the preferential access rights of Commonwealth goods to Britain's market.

Some Commonwealth countries give Commonwealth citizens privileges that are not accorded to aliens. For example, in Britain the right to vote is given to all Commonwealth citizens resident in that country. This is reciprocated mainly in the Commonwealth Caribbean, even to the point that in some countries (including Britain) resident Commonwealth citizens may even be elected or appointed to the national legislature. But these privileges are largely not reciprocal, and it is up to each country to decide what privileges it accords to Commonwealth citizenship, except for the Commonwealth Scholarship. Other privileges that Britain grants Commonwealth citizens include access to immigration programmes such as the working holidaymaker visa. Some privileges offered by individual countries have eroded over the last few decades, but most countries continue to afford special treatment for immigration (e.g. right of abode in UK for some) and visas. Commonwealth citizens are also eligible to join the British armed forces.

[edit] Criticisms

In recent decades there has been a mutual decline of interest in maintaining active intra-Commonwealth relations, and the organization's direct political and economic importance has declined.^{[citation needed]} Realist critics have argued that in the 21st century the organization is an inherently arbitrary alliance with members that are united only through a historical accident of British colonialism.^{[citation needed]} They argue that the organization lacks a balanced membership, and point out that it is very unusual for any international organization to exclude highly important regions of the world such as most of Western Europe and South America from membership.^{[citation needed]} Indeed, many Commonwealth members look increasingly to regional partners, non-Commonwealth as well as Commonwealth, to form their most important alliances.^{[citation needed]} Such criticisms aside, and however arbitrary the origins of Commonwealth membership, the fact remains that shared legal, economic, and governmental traditions give its members a common outlook that is not always shared with regional partners.^{[citation needed]}

Britain has forged closer relationships with other European countries through the European Union; this was widely felt as a betrayal by citizens of the "Old Commonwealth" whose economies had been developed on the assumption of access to British markets.^{[citation needed]} Similarly, former British colonies have forged closer relationships with non-Commonwealth trading partners and closer geographic neighbours.^{[citation needed]} Reaction to immigration from the new Commonwealth countries into Britain in the 1950s and early 1960s led to the restriction of the right of migration. The Commonwealth today mainly restricts itself to encouraging community between nations and to placing moral pressure on members who violate international laws, such as human rights laws, and abandon democratically-elected government.^{[citation needed]} Key activities today include training experts in developing countries and assisting with and monitoring elections.

[edit] Structure

[edit] Head of the Commonwealth

Main article: Head of the Commonwealth

Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, a title which is de facto annexed to the sovereign of the United Kingdom^[18]. Some members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth Realms, also recognise the Queen as their head of state. However, the majority of members are republics, and a handful of others are indigenous monarchies.

[edit] Commonwealth Secretariat

Main article: Commonwealth Secretariat

The Commonwealth Secretariat (see External links below), established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and cooperation among member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively.

Based in London, UK, the Secretariat organizes Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth’s fundamental political values.

The Secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth Heads of Government for no more than two four-year terms. The Secretary-General and two Deputy Secretaries-General direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present Secretary-General is Donald McKinnon, from New Zealand, who took office on 1 April 2000, succeeding Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–2000). The first Secretary-General was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–75), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–90).

[edit] Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

Main article: Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organization is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth presidents or prime ministers assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Prime Ministers' Conferences and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc.

[edit] Commonwealth Family

Main article: Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide non-governmental organizations, notably for sport, culture, education and charity. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through scholarships, principally the Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

[edit] Commonwealth Foundation

Main article: Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organization, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication and sustainable, people-centred development, and to promote arts and culture.

The Commonwealth Foundation was established by the Heads of Government in 1965. Membership of the Foundation is open to all members of the Commonwealth and currently (as of June 2007) stands at 46 governments out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London, and has no other offices. Regular liaison and cooperation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place.

The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding:^[19]

The purposes and areas of interest of the Foundation will be the administration of funds for increasing interchanges between Commonwealth organizations of the skilled or learned professions or skilled auxiliary occupations in order to maintain and improve standards of knowledge, attainment and conduct; and between non-governmental organizations of a voluntary rather than a strictly professional character throughout the Commonwealth. The Foundation's areas of interest will also extend to include culture, information and the media, rural development, social welfare and the handicapped, and the role of women.

[edit] Commonwealth Games

Main article: Commonwealth Games

A multi-sports championship called the Commonwealth Games is held every four years, in the same year as the Winter Olympic Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, the games include sports popular in the Commonwealth such as bowls.

[edit] Commonwealth of Learning

Main article: Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organization created by the Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.

[edit] Commonwealth Business Council

Main article: Commonwealth Business Council

The Commonwealth Business Council (CBC) was formed at the Edinburgh CHOGM in 1997. The aim was to utilize the global network of the Commonwealth more effectively for the promotion of global trade and investment for shared prosperity.

The CBC acts as a bridge for co-operation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas:

• Enhancing trade
• Mobilizing investment
• Promoting corporate citizenship
• Facilitating ICT for Development
• Public Private Partnerships

The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC Technologies, based in London and focused on the international technology and global services industry throughout the Commonwealth.

[edit] Commonwealth War Graves Commission

Main article: Commonwealth War Graves Commission

[edit] Cultural links

The Commonwealth is also useful as an international organization that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds. The common inheritance of the English language and literature, the common law, and British systems of administration all underpin the club-like atmosphere of the Commonwealth.

Mostly due to their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations share certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, parliamentary and legal traditions, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see Commonwealth English). None of these are universal within the Commonwealth countries, nor exclusive to them, but all of them are more common in the Commonwealth than elsewhere.

In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France, Spain and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (International Organization of Francophone Countries), the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones (Organization of Ibero-American States) and the Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese Language Countries).

[edit] Literature

The shared history of British rule has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages - Commonwealth literature. There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) with nine chapters worldwide. ACLALS holds an international conference every three years. The 13th Triennial was held in Hyderabad, India, in August 2004; the next will be held in 2007 in Vancouver, Canada from August 17 - 22, 2007.

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the Commonwealth Writers Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin." Caryl Phillips won the Commonwealth Writers Prize 2004 for A Distant Shore. Mark Haddon won the Commonwealth Writers' Prize 2004 Best First Book prize worth £3,000 for The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time.

Although not affiliated with the Commonwealth in an official manner, the prestigious Booker Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland. This honour is one of the highest in literature.